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Source: Dockyard Shipwrights by Bert Shardlow and Dr. David
Penney
Being an apprentice was by no means an easy trade to gain
entrance to. In the 17th century sixteen was an advanced age at which to begin
work, since the children of the poorer classes were expected to do something
for themselves from the age of five.
Then the apprentice had for seven
years to give his earnings to his master that is until he was 23 Thus for an
outsider the time and expense of training was comparable to what is now
involved in entering a profession. A boy whose father was already in the trade
was in a more advantageous position. If he were apprenticed to his father the
wage would make a real addition to the family income. In 1801 a change was made
such that only two thirds of the wage went to the instructor, and one third to
the apprentices parents or guardian.
Unfortunately, as successful as the
apprenticeship system was, apprentices as a rule had no general education when
they entered the Dockyard and they received no theoretical training after
entry. The Navy Board "suggested" that upon entry apprentices should be able to
read and write and understand the common rules of Arithmetic. Dockyard schools
were instituted in 1843. They were held during working hours and taught
Technical subjects, and after 1853 entry was gained by competitive
examination.
Shipwrights, both in the private yards and Royal Yards
would refuse to work with a man who had not completed an apprenticeship. If
they suspected a man’s credentials, they "horsed" him out of the yard.
That is, "the shipwrights surrounded (the suspect), put a Piece of Quarter
between his legs, took him up on their shoulders, carried him just without the
Gate, then sat him down Gave Three Shouts and returned to their
Duty".
Thus this system not only guaranteed thorough training but also
provided established shipwrights with a valuable "perk" in the form of extra
income and assistance in their work by having apprentices in their
service.
In 1608 it was decreed that no workman (shipwright) should have
more than one apprentice paid by the King. In fact the privilege of having an
apprentice was extended to about one sixth of the shipwrights. In 1664 the Navy
Board issued an order that every apprentice was to be 16 years of age at the
time of entry and was to serve seven years. In 1765 it was lowered to 15 years
of age and in 1769 to 14 years.
In September 1762 boys were not as
readily available as earlier, possibly due to Army recruitment or increased
work on the land, consequently the rules were relaxed sufficiently to allow
apprentices of only 4 foot and 10 inches to be employed instead of the 5 feet
minimum as before.
In the 18th century, the pay of an apprentice was
paid entirely to his instructor. This meant that the instructor almost
necessarily had to be the father of the apprentice. Apprenticeships served as
an important part of a system of reward and control , and also as a means of
providing support for the old and the widows, this especially being true before
the introduction of the superannuation fund.
ANCILLARY or TITULAR
TRADES. CAULKERS.
There were a number of kindred trades to that of
Shipwrights in the dockyards. Working alongside the shipwrights were the
Caulkers, who with the shipwrights were the highest paid dockyard workmen .The
caulkers filled the seams between the planking with oakum, old hemp rope picked
loose by his assistant the "oakum boy" to make the seams of carvel-built ships
watertight. Once the seams had been packed full of the fibres it would be water
proofed by smearing the seams with hot pitch. The "oakum boy" brought the pitch
in liquid form from a boiler, supplying a number of caulkers.
The
sawyers were essential to the shipwright. They cut straight tree trunks up into
plank and timber working in pairs with the tree trunk lying above them in a saw
pit. This work required a certain amount of skill in ensuring that the cut was
straight and ran parallel to any crack in the trunk. The senior of a pair of
sawyers stood astride the trunk holding the upper end of the whip saw guiding
the saw so that it followed the shape of the timbers required and pulling it
back up on its return stroke. Below this man was another sawyer in the saw pit,
holding the lower handle of the saw and providing the power for the downstroke
which did the cutting. He was the one who got the sawdust in his face. Sawpits
were usually grouped together often covered with a simple tiled roof. In 1811
Marc Brunel produced designs for large scale steam operated saw
mills.
HOUSE CARPENTERS.
Were chiefly concerned with the erection and
maintenance of buildings ashore. They were so called to distinguish them from
the shipwrights who were also known as "ships carpenters". Not usually having
to make curved shapes in wood theirs was a less skilled trade than that of
shipwrights. The joiners who made furniture were more highly paid than the
house carpenters. They were paid just slightly less than that of the
shipwrights and the caulkers.
Titular trades.
The Ropemaker made up
lengths of yarn by overlaying the combed hemp ,and this in turn was layed into
the required lengths of rope in the rope walks.
The Hatchelman was the
person who combed the hemp.
The Sailmaker made the sails from sailcloth
supplied by contractors.
The Colourmaker made up flags and ensigns from
dyed cloth.
The Rigger measured the rope for splicing and made it up for
standing and running rigging. Standing rigging is that which remains static
while running rigging is adjustable and secures sails ,booms, etc.
The
Blockmaster made the blocks and tackle for adjusting rigging and sails.
The
Nailsmith made nails and such, for the use of the shipwrights.
The
Blacksmith forged anchors and iron fittings, and from about 1810 made chain
cable. He also made bolts and nuts.
The Plugmaker made plugs which were
driven into the counterbored holes by the caulkers, where bolts were fitted.
The Joiner made furniture and higher grades of woodwork.
The Painter
was responsible for decoration and preservation of the hull.
The Woodcarver
made figureheads and other ornate carvings.
The Mastmaker made masts and
spars. He was usually a shipwright employed on this specialist work.
The
Scavelman dug the docks in the early days and sealed the ends of the timber. A
scavel was a heart shaped long handled shovel.
In one instance at
least, much of the unskilled work of digging and carting was done by convict
labour. This was the case in Chatham during the huge extension of the Dockyard
around the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, and also at Sheerness during
the re building of the Dockyard. Previously persons convicted of felonies were
put in the hulks of old ships prior to transportation to America. With the loss
of the American colonies the hulks were dispensed with on the Thames and Medway
and the inmates were transferred to St. Mary’s Prison, Chatham. Whether
temporary or permanent resident in the hulks, convict labour was used at
Chatham from about 1740 until 1899 when Chatham Prison closed and the Royal
Naval Barracks were built on the site. Hulks, however, remained as floating
prisons until 1857 often holding convicts prior to transportation to
Australia.
SHIPWRIGHTS.
Shipwrights were the backbone of Dockyard
organisation. During peacetime in the 18th century it was estimated that 14
shipwrights were needed for every 1,000 tons of shipping in the Navy so that
for the then existing 300,000 tons, 4200 shipwrights were required . There were
2581 shipwrights in the Royal Dockyards in 1804, excluding apprentices. Another
5,100 shipwrights were employed in Private English Dockyards.
The City
Company of Free Shipwrights of London was an old trade guild formed to ensure
better skill in the craft. Their Ordinance Book begins in 1428 but the main
body of records date from about 1660. Most of the early record perished in the
great fire which ranged over Ratcliff, where the first Shipwrights Hall was
located. A newer group, apparently organised around 1605 was known as the
Shipwrights of Redrith (Rotherhithe).
The tools of a working shipwright
were those of the carpenter. In general, however, they were much heavier, as he
worked in oak rather than soft wood and with large timbers. He used an adze, a
long handled tool much like a gardeners hoe. The transverse axe-like blade was
used for trimming timber. To fasten timbers and planks, wood treenails were
used. These were made from "clear" oak and could be up to 36” long and
2” in diameter. The auger was used to bore holes into which the treenails
were driven, and the shipwright had the choice of some ten sizes ranging from
2” down to ½”. A mall, basically a large hammer with a flat
face and a long conical taper on the other was used for driving the treenails.
Shipwrights also used two-man cross-cut saws as well as a single handsaw. Good
sawing saved much labour with the adze. Other tools used were heavy axes and
hatchets for hewing, and hacksaws and cold chisels to cut bolts to length. Iron
nails of all sorts and sizes as well as spikes were available. Nails were used
in particular to fasten the deck planks.
The warrant and commissioned
shipwrights in the Royal Navy were called "Carpenters" until 1918. The actual
working shipwrights in the R.N. were known as "Carpenters Mates" until the same
year. Since that time and until recently the Shipwright branch on the Royal
Navy had its own officers. Few, however rose above the rank of Lieutenant
Commander. Other ranks commenced on entry as "Shipwright 4th Class", then 3rd ,
2nd, and 1st Class Shipwright and eventually Chief Petty Officer
Shipwright.
The hull of the "Royal George" a 100 gun 1st rate ship, was
launched in 1756. She took 5756 loads of timber. A load is 50 cubic feet (about
a ton) or roughly the amount in an average oak tree, thus the total weight of
timber used was 5756 tons. As this is about three times the hull weight, this
figure represents the hull weight before cutting into futtocks, knees, plank
etc. Smaller amounts of elm, pine, lignum vitae and other woods had specialised
uses in building a ship. To complete a ship of this size took 2-3 years, while
a 40 gun ship could be built in 12 months , a 20 gun in nine and a sloop in
six.
Commencing with the frigate "Alarm" in 1761, all the hulls of
Naval ships were copper sheathed below the waterline. Previously they had been
"engraved" in a dock with a mixture of pitch, tar and brimstone, hence the name
Graving Dock. From 1649 when Oliver Cromwell overthrew Charles II, The
Admiralty required shipwrights to build and submit models of the ships they
were going to build, along with technical plans. Such extant models provide us
with the most accurate source of information about the techniques of
shipbuilding at that time.
WORKING CONDITIONS
It was the custom for
the men to enter the dockyard at the ringing of a bell and muster at the Clerk
of the Cheques’s office. This they also did on leaving. During the day
they also answered periodic muster, thus during the day there were usually four
"calls". Between 1722 and 1804 men in then dockyard worked the following
schedule:
12 hours from 6am to 6pm from March to October.
In the
Winter, work was from daylight to dusk.
In the Summer ½ hour was
allowed for breakfast and 1½ hours for dinner.
In the Winter there
was no time for breakfast and only 1 hour for dinner.
Wages for days or
half days absence were forfeited and no compensation was paid for sickness or
injury on the job. Usually the Shipwrights worked together in "gangs", either
afloat on the ships moored in the river or in the yard itself. When working in
gangs they were led by quartermen .Such quartermen were allowed to choose their
gang from among the available shipwrights. Normally there was about 1
Quarterman for 20 shipwrights.
In March 1775 the shipwrights at
Sheerness were grouped as follows:
Four Task Gangs - 5 quartermen, 56
shipwrights and 20 servants
Two Day Gangs - 2 quartermen, 24 shipwrights
and 18 servants
Masthouse Gang - Master Mastmaker, 10 shipwrights and 3
servants
Boathouse Gang - Master Boatbuilder , 1 quarterman ,12 shipwrights
and 3 servants.
The "task system" was introduced in the 1770’s, a
gang employed by task was paid when the task was completed – piecework in
modern terms- whereas the earlier practice had been to pay by the day. Within
each Dockyard a tap house provided beer, it being unwise to drink water. There
is preserved a list of men from Deptford yard who were punished during the year
1733 to 1737 and the most common offence was "Absenting after answering the
call" the next was "Idling in the tap house" smoking was prohibited and those
found "Skulking in corners" were fined three days pay. The very long working
hours ensured a daily life totally centred around the work place. Families
freely entered the yards and a dockyard worker might well share each meal with
his wife and children at his workplace.
WAGES AND BENEFITS.
About
1750 the wage rate for a shipwright near London was 3/- per day and in 1770
3s-6d per day (£39 per year). In 1970 the daily rate had risen to 4/-.
This was considerably more than a labourer. For example in 1713 a family
consisting of a man, his wife, and three or four children would not ask for
Parish Relief if their total annual income was £20 or more.
During the Great wars of the 18th century, if a shipwright had an apprentice
this meant an additional income of from 1s-2d to 1s-10d in their pay. There was
a long running conflict over the question of "chips", off cuts of wood of no
further value in shipbuilding which workers were accustomed to take out of the
yard. A "chip" was a piece of wood no more than 3ft long, in practice however
these could be up to 12ft. long. In 1620 wages were raised to compensate for
the loss of this priveledge but it did not stop it. For example in 1739 when
the Navy Board attempted to abolish the practice of taking "chips" without
giving compensation the carpenters and joiners at Deptford went out on strike
following those at Woolwich. The Boards attempt failed. A regulation of 1753
specified that no more "chips" could be taken than could be carried under one
arm. This provoked a strike at Chatham. Later, through precedent, this rule was
resolved to specify "a load carried on one shoulder". "Chips" were of obvious
value in the days when coal was scarce and expensive in Southern England . They
were often used for building purposes, some old houses in dockyard towns have
an unusual number of short boards in them.
Pilfering from the dockyards
was said to be rampant in the 18th Century made especially easy hidden in
bundles of "chips". The Navy Board issued the following order regards
pilfering: You are to suffer no person to pass out of the dock gates with great
coats , large trousers , or any other dress that can conceal stores of any
kind. No person is to be suffered to work in Great Coats at any time over any
account. No trousers are to be used by the labourers employed in the Storehouse
and if any persist in such a custom he will be discharged the
yard.
Women bringing meals into the yard in baskets were often caught
removing valuable items along with the "Chips". The taking of "chips" was
abolished in May 1801 and was replaced by a daily payment. It was not uncommon
for a worker to appear at roll call and then secretly leave the yard for the
rest of the day, in order to relax or work at another paying job. Labour
troubles were not uncommon in the dockyards, especially in times of particular
national need as before or during a war. One method used by the Navy Board to
deal with such disruptions was to press gang the ringleaders for sea service.
Old workmen were permitted to keep their jobs long after they were fit to do
them and many were allowed servants. They were often given light tasks such as
sorting wedges, and mooting treenails , that is, finishing them into smooth
cylinders of various gauges by means of a moot. When they died ,their servants
stayed on, providing income for the widows. In 1764 the first scheme of
superannuation (pension system ) was instituted for those who had served 30
years or more with the possibility of retiring on 2/3 of basic pay.
Inspector of Shipwrights was the first step in the salaried scale. The
order of advancement was:
1. Working shipwright.
2. Quarterman of
shipwrights.
3. Leading man of shipwrights.
4. Inspector of
shipwrights.
5. Foreman of the Yard.
6. Senior foreman of the yard.
7. Assistant Master Shipwright.
8. Master Shipwright.
9. Surveyor
of the Navy.
The first three grades were hourly paid , the later six
,salaried . In grades 6 to 9 men would have been employed in designing
warships, managing the Dockyards and selecting timbers. An Acting Inspector
would have been known as a Leading man until being placed on a salary
list.
Since the Master Shipwright in a yard could not personally oversee
every ship being built in the private yards in his vicinity, he depended on his
Overseers. They were ordinary shipwrights from one of the Royal Dockyards,
getting paid their regular shipwrights daily wage of 2s- 1d , plus 5s for
overseeing . At the February 1764 meeting, the Naval Commissioners admitted
"that it was a great trust to repose in one man , the overseeing ….. in
private yards but as the necessity of the times required so many to be set
there, they had no other Persons to confide in but the Quartermen and such like
officers".
The first book for shipwrights , "The Shipbuilders Assistant"
was written by William Sutherland in 1711. The book like Munro Murry’s
later book on the same subject begins by introducing mathematics and geometry
in a quaint manner. The next chapter goes on to show the need to study nature
in designing the best form of a ship, the dolphin-like form for the shape below
water, originally suggested by Matthew Baker. The third chapter deals with
maritime architecture – the mechanical part of the building of
ships.
The authors:
Bert Shardlow. Senior Dockyard Foreman ,a post
equivalent, to say a Managing Director of a very large business. He had access
to all Naval Dockyard records and after his retirement was allowed access to
all Naval Establishments for his research.
David G Penney B.S., M.S., Ph.D,
W.H.O. Professor of Physiology, Director of Surgical Research Providence
Hospital, MI., Wayne State University, Detroit MI. |